Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation

Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation Introduction The three articles chosen for analysis focus on the neurological correlation between ecstasy and memory impairment; one by Simon and Mattick (2001) assessed the relationship between ecstasy use and memory impairment. The second one by Zakzanis Young (2001) dwelt on memory impairment in abstinent MDMA users over one year. Lastly, a study done by Bolla et al. (1998) focused on memory impairment in abstinent ecstasy users.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Biological psychology methodology Simon and Mattick (2001) used a correlational analysis to determine whether a relationship exists between prolonged ecstasy use and memory function. The researchers were also interested in comparison of this memory function with that of regular cannabis users. Therefore, this research method revolved around establishment of a r elationship, definition of what the relationship was and how strong it was. This was a cross sectional study because the researchers sampled the population and studied all the concerned measured at one point. Although the researchers were interested in analyzing the effect of prolonged usage of MDMA, they did not measure level of drug use for a prolonged period of time. The authors recorded the histories of the participants and collected information about their average lifetime drug use and psychological well being. They tested their memory function using standardized tests. All these variables were collected using structured interviews. Bolla et al. (1998) utilized an experimental approach in their analysis. They focused on a control group that did not use MDMA (drug-naà ¯ve participants) and one that used the drugs. They measured their memory scores and then compared the results. This allowed them to establish whether a cause and effect relationship existed between ecstasy drug u se and memory impairment. The authors carried out a retrospective study. Zakzanis Young (2001) used a longitudinal approach in their analysis. Such an approach is quite sensible because it minimizes the effect of past difference in memory functioning. This method allowed the authors to show the causal direction of effects. During a twelve month period, participants were analyzed twice for memory functions and only MDMA users were employed. Strengths and weaknesses of the biological hypotheses The key strength with the research conducted by Simon and Mattick (2001) is that it acknowledges the possibility of cannabis as a confounding factor and thus analyses it. Possibilities of the effect of other drugs such as alcohol were considered, as well. Additionally, the researchers tried to narrow down the demographic variation and lifestyle differences between the test and comparison groups by focusing on members of the same age group.Advertising Looking for research paper on healt h medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These researchers also studied the psychological robustness of the subjects in order to ascertain that the variable would not interfere with memory functioning. The key weakness in this study is the fact that it is a correlational study in which the test subjects are subjected to a series of other confounding factors. Consequently, one cannot determine cause and effect relationship unless all the possible variables that affect memory are controlled. First, this experiment uses subjects with different memory capabilities. No analysis of the subjects was done prior to their use of cannabis or ecstasy in order to determine their previous memory scores. This should have been compared with their current memory status (after prolonged ecstasy use) in order to determine whether there was any change. Furthermore, only average ecstasy dosage levels were considered for the entire group, yet individual consumption variations do exist. Some people may take 30 tablets of ecstasy a month while others may only take two. Education plays a vital role in one’s performance during memory tests. Persons with tertiary education are more likely to remember certain things that those without it. This study did not acknowledge that difference, and randomly selected test subjects. Lastly, the researchers did not consider the effect of lifestyle in patterns of use. Ecstasy is a drug that is associated with the ‘rave’ culture while cannabis is not. People who engage in prolonged dancing and are sleep deprived may report relatively low scores in memory tests, so this should have been considered. The critical problem with Bolla et al. (1998) was that they allowed the control subjects to have experimented with other drugs. They claimed that this was only fair since members of the test group also used other drugs. Instead of incorporating two confounders, the scientists should have tried to eliminate the use of other recreational drugs from both subjects. If this was impossible, then they should have included prior recreational drug use in the regression analysis. Another major problem that was also noted in the previous study was failure to measure underlying memory function differences between the control group (non MDMA users) and the test group. No incorporation of lifestyle differences between the control and test subjects was also made. One of the vital strengths of this study was that it included the effect of drug dosage levels during the analysis. It also considered other demographic factors such as age, gender and vocabulary use. Furthermore, the effect of MDMA dosage concentrations on memory concentrations also validated their claims.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Zakzanis Young (2001) research was advantageous because it was longitudinal, so it eliminated problems with differences between the test subjects. Additionally, it used participants within the same age group; that is, 17- 31. Education level was also considered as all had to have at least 14 years worth of education. Since these factors were incorporated in the analysis, then the possibility of confounding factors in memory scores was eradicated. Additionally, because the study only focused on ecstasy users, then there was no need to include lifestyle differences between the test subjects. The major challenge with this study was that the sample size was small; only 15 participants were employed in the study. In addition, no reference was made to psychological factors that could have affected the test subjects in the past; this may have impeded their memory during the study. Assessment of the research findings conclusion Simon and Mattick (2001) found that there was no correlation between me mory impairment and regular MDMA use. However, they found an association between lifetime cannabis use and memory impairment. They explained that cannabis has a confounding role in other tests that measure memory impairment and MDMA use. One may question these findings because adjustments for lifestyle differences between cannabis and MDMA were not done. Failure to incorporate other confounding factors such as education level, age and memory capabilities before the study also place doubt on these findings. Bolla et al. (1998) found a strong relationship between memory impairment and drug use. However, the challenges in proving a cause and effect relationship in studies of memory impairment were not overcome in this paper. No consideration for recall differences was done and no incorporation of lifestyle variations was included in the research, so one might question these findings. Zakzanis Young (2001) found that continued ecstasy use led to a decline in delayed recall. One may cou nt on this research because its design was the least problematic among the three. The authors eliminated inaccuracies that stem from lifestyle variations, and preexisting memory differences between non MDMA users and MDMA users. Besides these, problems with sample size can easily be corrected. Study plan The study plan under consideration will be a correlational longitudinal study. It will be longitudinal because such studies allow authors to study effect patterns over long periods of time. They can authoritatively make cause and effect correlations owing to these patterns.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This study design was borrowed from the one done by Zakzanis Young (2001). It will use correlational analysis because a group that will possess the characteristics under analysis will be compared with one that does not have these characteristics, and a conclusion will be made. The latter correlational section is similar to Simon and Mattick (2001). Hypothesis The hypothesis of the research is â€Å"The lifestyle of MDMA users causes memory deficits†. Many analysts acknowledge that ecstasy users have an exclusive way of life that is not found among other drug users. These individuals often engage in prolonged dancing and visual stimulation. Users may lack sleep and may eat minimal quantities of food. These are all factors that may affect how a person’s memory functions. Few researchers have considered this factor in their research, let alone use it as the main research variable. Only a a small number have tried to exclude its confounding effects from their findings. Co nsequently, the line of research is worth pursuing. How to design a study to verify the hypothesis The research will involve 50 individuals. All participants will be MDMA users, but 25 of them will have a relatively dormant lifestyle while the other 25 will have a lifestyle that is identified with ecstasy users. The study will last for a period of one year, and the memory scores of test subjects will be measured at the beginning of the study and at the end of it. A longitudinal analysis of memory functioning will be done for these two groups and their t-test values compared. If the group with the typical ecstasy lifestyle has higher declines in memory than the one without the active lifestyle, then the hypothesis will be confirmed (refer to the section above for the hypothesis statement). Independent and dependent variable The hypothesis will provide a guideline on the dependent and independent variables in the study. First, the dependent variable is memory decline or memory deficit s while the independent variable is the lifestyle of MDMA users. People who manifest this lifestyle will be persons who lack sleep and food due to dancing and participation in the rave subculture. Those who do not possess this quality will belong to the control group. How to assure validity of the research In order to ensure validity in the research, it will be imperative to avoid most of the pitfalls that researchers in this field often fall into. First of all, the research will employ a longitudinal analysis that will eliminate the problem of comparing separate groups of people whose previous memory scores were not known. The paper will not compare discrete memory scores between the control and the test group; instead, it will look at the patterns of memory decline in these two separate groups. This will eradicate any possible psychological factors that may alter individual memory scores among these groups. Another method for ensuring validity will be to use participants of the sa me age group, gender and educational background. Such an approach would eliminate possible confounding effects on memory. Additionally, since prior drug use of other recreational drugs may affect outcomes, it will be imperative to include these in the correlational analysis. Characteristics of drug use will also be included in the calculations so as to preclude the effect of this exposure on the dependent variable. Criteria for conducting the study safely and ethically Only participants who give informed consent will be used in the research. They will be informed about the purpose of the research, procedures involved and the duration. Furthermore, their identities will remain anonymous, and those who feel uncomfortable with any of the research procedures will be excused. The matter under analysis is MDMA drug usage. Since this substance has neurological effects, then no participants will get the substance from the researcher. It would be unethical to subject participants to biologic al harm through this avenue. Consequently only those individuals who take MDMA out of their own accord will be considered for the research. During analysis of the results, findings will be used as is. In other words, no manipulation of outcomes will take place in order to confirm or nullify the hypothesis. Acceptable data analysis techniques will be used in order to come up with the most accurate results. References Bolla, K., McCann, M. Ricaurte, G. (1998). Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA (Ecstasy) users. Neurology Journal, 51(6), 1532-1537. Simon, N. Mattick, R. (2001). The impact of regular ecstasy use on memory function. Addiction Journal 97, 1523-1529. Zakzanis, K. Young, D. (2001). Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA (Ecstasy) users: a longitudinal investigation. Neurology Journal, 56, 966-969.

The 15th Century Chinese Explorer Cheng Ho

The 15th Century Chinese Explorer Cheng Ho Decades before Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue in search of a water route to Asia, the Chinese were exploring the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific with seven voyages of the Treasure Fleet that solidified Chinese control over much of Asia in the 15th century. The Treasure Fleets were commanded by a powerful eunuch admiral named Cheng Ho. Cheng Ho was born around 1371 in Chinas southwestern Yunan Province (just north of Laos) with the name Ma Ho. Ma Hos father was a Muslim hajji (who had made a pilgrimage to Mecca) and the family name of Ma was used by Muslims in representations of the word Mohammed. When Ma Ho was ten years old (around 1381), he was captured along with other children when the Chinese army invaded Yunan to take control over the region. At the age of 13 he was castrated, as were other young prisoners, and he was placed as a servant in the household of the Chinese Emperors fourth son (out of twenty-six total sons), Prince Zhu Di. Ma Ho proved himself to be an exceptional servant to Prince Zhu Di. He became skilled in the arts of war and diplomacy and served as an officer of the prince. Zhu Di renamed Ma Ho as Cheng Ho because the eunuchs horse was killed in battle outside of a place called Zhenglunba. (Cheng Ho is also Zheng He in the newer Pinyin transliteration of Chinese but hes still most commonly called Cheng Ho). Cheng Ho was also known as San Bao which means three jewels. Cheng Ho, who was said to have been seven feet tall, was given greater power when Zhu Di became emperor in 1402. One year later, Zhu Di appointed Cheng Ho admiral and ordered him to oversee the construction of a Treasure Fleet to explore the seas surrounding China. Admiral Cheng Ho was the first eunuch appointed to such a high military position in China. First Voyage (1405-1407) The first Treasure Fleet consisted of 62 ships; four were huge wood boats, some of the largest ever built in history. They were approximately 400 feet (122 meters) long and 160 feet (50 meters) wide. The four were the flagships of the fleet of 62 ships assembled at Nanjing along the Yangtze (Chang) River. Included in the fleet were 339-foot (103-meter) long horse ships that carried nothing but horses, water ships that carried fresh water for the crew, troop transports, supply ships, and warships for offensive and defensive needs. The ships were filled with thousands of tons of Chinese goods to trade with others during the voyage. In the fall of 1405, the fleet was ready to embark with 27,800 men. The fleet utilized the compass, invented in China in the 11th century, for navigation. Graduated sticks of incense were burned to measure time. One day was equal to 10 watches of 2.4 hours each. Chinese navigators determine latitude through monitoring the North Star (Polaris) in the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Cross in the Southern Hemisphere. The ships of the Treasure Fleet communicated with one another through the use of flags, lanterns, bells, carrier pigeons, gongs, and banners. The destination of the first voyage of the Treasure Fleet was Calicut, known as a major trading center on the southwestern coast of India. India was initially discovered by Chinese overland explorer Hsuan-Tsang in the seventh century. The fleet stopped in Vietnam, Java, and Malacca, and then headed west across the Indian Ocean to Sri Lanka and Calicut and Cochin (cities on the southwest coast of India). They remained in India to barter and trade from late 1406 to the spring of 1407 when they utilized the monsoon shift to sail toward home. On the return voyage, the Treasure Fleet was forced to battle pirates near Sumatra for several months. Eventually, Cheng Hos men managed to capture the pirate leader and take him to the Chinese capital Nanjing, arriving in 1407. Second Voyage (1407-1409) A second voyage of the Treasure Fleet departed on a return trip to India in 1407 but Cheng Ho did not command this voyage. He remained in China to oversee the repair of a temple at the birthplace of a favorite goddess. The Chinese envoys on board helped to ensure the power of a king of Calicut. The fleet returned in 1409. Third Voyage (1409-1411) The fleets third voyage (Cheng Hos second) from 1409 to 1411 consisted of 48 ships and 30,000 men. It followed closely the route of the first voyage but the Treasure Fleet established entrepots (warehouses) and stockades along their route to facilitate trade and storage of goods. On the second voyage, the King of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) was aggressive; Cheng Ho defeated the kings forces and captured the king to take him to Nanjing. Fourth Voyage (1413-1415) In late 1412, Cheng Ho was ordered by Zhu Di to make  a fourth  expedition. It wasnt until late 1413 or early 1414 that Cheng Ho embarked on his expedition with 63 ships and 28,560 men. The goal of this trip was to reach the Persian Gulf at Hormuz, known to be a city of amazing wealth and goods, including pearls and precious stones much coveted by the Chinese emperor. In the summer of 1415, the Treasure Fleet returned with a bounty of trade goods from the Persian Gulf. Detachments of this expedition sailed south along the eastern coast of Africa almost as far south as Mozambique. During each of Cheng Hos voyages, he brought back diplomats from other countries or encouraged ambassadors to go to the capital Nanjing on their own. Fifth Voyage (1417-1419) The fifth voyage was ordered in 1416 to return the ambassadors who had arrived from other countries. The Treasure Fleet departed in 1417 and visited the Persian Gulf and the east coast of Africa, returning envoys along the way. They returned in 1419. Sixth Voyage (1421-22) A sixth voyage was launched in the spring of 1421 and visited Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, and Africa. By this time, Africa was considered Chinas El Dorado, a source of riches. Cheng Ho returned in late 1421 but the remainder of the fleet didnt arrive in China until 1422. Emperor Zhu Di died in 1424 and his son Zhu Gaozhi became emperor. He canceled the voyages of the Treasure Fleets and ordered shipbuilders and sailors to stop their work and return home. Cheng Ho was appointed military commander of Nanjing. Seventh Voyage (1431-1433) The leadership of Zhu Gaozhi did not last long. He died in 1426 at the age of 26. His son and Zhu Dis grandson Zhu Zhanji took Zhu Gaozhis place. Zhu Zhanji was much more like his grandfather than his father was and in 1430 he resumed the Treasure Fleet voyages by ordering Cheng Ho to resume his duties as admiral and make  a seventh  voyage in an attempt to restore peaceful relations with the kingdoms of Malacca and Siam. It took a year to gear up for the voyage which departed as a large expedition with 100 ships and 27,500 men. On the return trip in  1433,  Cheng Ho is believed to have died; others state that he died in 1435 after the return to China. Nonetheless, the era of exploration for China was soon over as the following  emperors  prohibited trade and even the construction of ocean-going vessels. Its likely that a detachment of one of Cheng Hos fleets sailed to northern Australia during one of the seven voyages based  upon  the Chinese artifacts found as well as the oral history of the Aborigine. After the seven voyages of Cheng Ho and the Treasure Fleets, Europeans began to make headway toward China. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded Africas Cape of Good Hope, in 1498 Vasco da Gama reached Chinas favorite trading city of Calicut, and in 1521 Ferdinand Magellan finally reached Asia by sailing west. Chinas superiority in the Indian Ocean was unrivaled until the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived and established their colonies along the rim of the Indian Ocean.